The origin of words and Development (breeze to write)

 The clay tablets in Mesopotamia is the language of the text book
records, human language originated about 10 million -5 million years ago, the earliest written history only dates back about 7 years ago. With the words, human knowledge can be recorded, no deviation has been passed down. so the text generation, and promote the social civilization of mankind, to promote the development of natural science, the media have played any significant role can not be replaced.
Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt has had a long text. When the Sumerian city-states in Mesopotamia established the era of slavery, they invented the word, starting with the hieroglyphs, and later evolved into cuneiform for writing convenience. Wedge text used in Mesopotamia for thousands of years. They boggy clay tablet carrier for the text, with a small stick or reed baroclinic in the above text composed of some strokes, because the lines are inverted triangle with a small , so called cuneiform. dried or dried clay tablets long-term preservation. At the time local officials and temples are a lot of clay tablets possession of the book, and now we can see, there are still more than 30,000 pieces. such as Google and cattle word :
ancient Egyptians The ancient Egyptians
paper cursive writing technology and Mesopotamia different. Nile Delta is rich in plant resembling a reed, called sand paper grass. people put sand paper cut into lengths suitable for the grass The pieces, flatten it cut open, arranged in neat rows to form tablets, dried Serve toilet paper. They used reeds for pen dipped in juice, and black carbon ink made of soot prepared to cursive in the paper write the above. As easy mildew deterioration of paper cursive, to go through several thousand years, preserving invariance, there is no very special environment is not left behind sealed, so the paper cursive become very rare in today's world of cultural heritage. For example, two large volumes of paper written in cursive monks: roll hidden in the Museum of London, called Laiyin De cursive paper, a roll of possession of the museum in Moscow.'s cursive two rolls, about 1850 BC ~ before 1650, between equivalent to China's Xia. Ebbers paper cursive which is known, it is a 30 cm wide, long 20.23 meters of monumental masterpiece, recorded a variety of ailments and treatments. hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt also has written on sheepskin on the , or carved in stone and wood on the historical data, hidden in the world.
Yin Ruins Oracle Oracle

Qing dynasty 25 years found that the fall of the Qing court in Beijing Ren Ji Jiu Imperial College (the equivalent of the Central educational institutions, the highest office) and Wang Yirong, got malaria, sent to the mouth of Xuanwumen Darren Hall outside the food market in the Chinese medicine pharmacy buy one, he accidentally saw blindly called the some symbols. keel hundreds of thousands of years ago, the bones of ancient vertebrates, how could they have carved symbols? This can not help but arouse his curiosity. epigraphy of the ancient text known as the study of Wang Yirong have a closer look, and felt that this is not an ordinary notch, much like the ancient text, but its shape is non-Zhou (Seal) is not seal (Seal Script). To find more in-depth study keel, he rushed to Darren Hall sent to each piece twenty-two the high price of silver, engraved with the symbol of all the pharmacies to buy up the keel, and later carried out by dealers and others Purchases Fan Weiqing, the cumulative total of more than 1,500 pieces.
his careful analysis of these keel after that they are not what the caused a sensation in the community, the literati and the antique dealer competing for hidden.
1900 年 7 months, the invading army under siege, Empress Dowager Cixi, who led the royal family fled in panic, Wang Yirong thoroughly disappointed. His family said: Gou students can not! Oracle found that 90 anniversary of the fall of 1989, in his hometown of Fushan District, Yantai Wang Yirong memorial built to commemorate his achievements.
Wang Yirong martyrdom, his collection of bones, most of the outcome of friends Liutie Yun. Lau further collection , the oracle bones to possession of more than 5,000 films, in 1903, the rubbing of the know that bones unearthed in Henan Province to visit the county's Xiao Tuncun Anyang area, so he sent his family to buy Anyang, and site visits in person at Anyang. has collected a total of nearly twenty thousand bones and in 1913 a selection of more than 2000 film compiled Mr.Tanglan, Meng-home, Rong Geng, in Shogo, Hu declared so thick a fruitful Explanation and research, the formation of a specialized knowledge mm oracle bones.
Oracle has not yet recognized in the past, Anyang City, Henan Province, Xiao Tuncun When farmers in the farming fields have continued to dig dig in the ancient oracle bones. It is said that the bones as medicine to the pharmacy to sell the first one to the barber is a man named Li Cheng. once an abscess on his victims, no money purchase of medicines to the doctor, put the bones ground into powder, apply to the abscess, and can not think of bone meal to the outflow of pus was drained, and found that bone meal there bleeding effect. Since then he took them to gather together, say is the keel, sold in the pharmacy.
textual research by many experts, the keel is called Shang divination tools. people divination before the first shells and ox shoulder blades sawing neatly, and then drilled in the bones of the back deep pit and shallow circular groove, divination, the first thing to ask prayer to the gods tell clearly, and then use the burning wooden sticks, deep socket or slot on the side of the burning, burning to a certain extent, the corresponding parts in the bones the crack to be displayed. Thus, Diviner according to crack length, thickness, right and wrong, implicit explicit, to determine what's good and bad, success or failure. divination, the fortune will be content with a knife and carved the results of the near divinations, This is the inscriptions. inscribed oracle bone inscriptions as file data is properly stored in Jiaoxue in, then may spread to future generations. Oracle found the story, later known as archaeological history of the world wrote a chapter with the legendary.
found
the Yin Ruins relics unearthed bones to ascertain the location, from autumn 1928 to summer of 1937, Sino-Japanese War broke out, the study of History and Philology The archaeological group, in the famous archaeologist Tung Tso-pin, Li Ji, Liang Siyong, who has presided over, in Xiao Tuncun area were 15 times as long as 10 years of archaeological excavations, not only has found a total of over 24,900 pieces bones and discovered the palace of the late Shang Dynasty, the ancestral temple ruins and tomb area, unearthed a lot of precious bronze, jade, pottery, from the material culture of the Shang Dynasty to provide evidence to the Shang king. Yin became world-famous ancient cultural sites once again shocked the Chinese and foreign academics.
founding of New China, has conducted a number of archaeologists investigating, exploring, generally understand the scope and layout of the Shang Dynasty. located in the northwest of the Yin Ruins in Anyang city, it Xiao Tuncun as the center, what about 6 km, about 5 km north-south, with a total area of 30 square kilometers. Huan Xiao Tuncun along the south bank of the palace is the residential area of Yin Wang, discover dozens of the palace base, the largest an area of 5,000 square meters. Huan Department is Yanwang Ling District, Hebei, has unearthed more than a dozen large tomb, a thousand more than a dozen small tomb, and a large number of burial pits. in the palace, found near the Oracle archive, and two bronze, jade , made of bone, pottery and other handicraft workshop sites. Yin explore long duration, scale, harvest of abundance, is rare in the history of Chinese Archaeology.
1976 in the spring, near the palace, Xiao Tuncun north west 100 meters, dig out the first female general in Chinese history the tomb of Fu Hao. Oracle records, women's business Wang Wuding good queen. One summer, the northern border war, the two sides at loggerheads, good women volunteered to require shuaibing Go, Wu Ding hesitant to good fortune after the woman decided to send the uprising, the results of victory. After that, she served as commander of the lunar month, since then, her conquests, beat more than 20 separate small around the country. There was a turtle shells and bones said Qiang Fu Fortunately expedition party, the commander of a large team of 13 people, which is known to date one of the largest military forces outside the Shang Dynasty. excavated ruins of Yin Fu Hao tomb is the only preserved royal tombs the Yin , unearthed many artifacts are inscribed, is the only and the Oracle, to corroborate historical documents, which can determine the identity of the tomb, dating to the Shang Dynasty royal tombs.
discovered the significance of
Shang Dynasty Oracle Oracle is the document that records the earliest, and now oracle bones has become a worldwide spectacular discipline, research more than 500 Chinese and foreign scholars, published monographs, over 3,000 kinds of paper. its history, the text , archeology, etc. are of great importance.
Shang oracle bones from a piece of text on the discovery and found that this positive development to a more than 3,000 years ago, over 600 years of dynasties, this is how great find! Which brings 20 years of this century, some scholars believe that the credibility of the history of China began in the Western Zhou Dynasty's of-sheng. royal families from the state affairs on, down to private life, such as worship, climate, crop, conquest, hunting, sickness, maternity, leave, etc., are all praying to gods, good and bad fortune that the decision to behavior. Thus, divination became a national event in the political life of the court to set up a special government agencies and divination. There oracle inscriptions, were saved as the national archives, piled into Jiaoxue. So inscriptions on oracle bones to become first-hand the history of the Shang Dynasty, and it reflects from 1300 BC to 1000 BC in all aspects of social life.
Oracle was first discovered from 1899 to the present, according to scholar Hu Hou Xuan statistics, a total of bones unearthed more than 154,600 pieces, including collection of over 97,600 pieces mainland, Taiwan has a collection of over 30,000 films, Hong Kong, 89 in possession. In addition, Japan, Canada, Britain, the United States and other countries were a collection of over 26,700 films. So far these some words carved on oracle bones of about 4,500, have been deciphered so far about 2,000 or so words.
Chinese language the bud early on in the Neolithic pottery Yangshao to find a variety of carved symbols become the prototype of Chinese characters, after years of breeding twenty-three, development, and to the Shang Dynasty, China's text to meet the basic stage of maturity. Oracle has a system and have more strict laws, carved exquisite, rich in content study of ancient Chinese characters have important role. In the past, the study of ancient writing is based mainly on the Shang and Zhou bronze inscriptions, such as the Eastern Han Xu Shen's excavated relics, a higher degree of credibility, the study of the origin and development of Chinese characters, correct the The bamboo
to the Spring and Autumn Period, the text information has increased, various schools, wrote books, an unprecedented social and cultural prosperity. Then if the bones and then to record the text, apparently stupid thick and heavy. Our ancestors used to write the material to find alternatives: bamboo called bamboo; wood called wooden slips, also known version of Du.
Jane in length are three feet long, short, only five inches. people write, they often simply use foot-long Therefore, the letter was referred to as . br> Bi Sheng
movable type arose in the early Tang Dynasty, woodblock printing, the history of printing to achieve a major technological revolution, a book than in the past not only fast, printing a large amount of spread in a large range of ideas and cultures, to Song, there has been a golden age of block printing techniques. British Museum collection of . full page becomes waste.
between 1041-1048 AD, Song Dynasty, Bi Sheng invented movable type. According to Shen Kuo's steps: (1) to a small box made of clay inscribed one word good, the fire burned hard, become a pottery type. Usually these type into the paper bag pottery, according to the order of vowel pronunciation Gerry in the wood. (2) Pick out according to script the required type of pottery, came in a piece of iron version, the word fat layer of wax and ashes delegation, put the fire on the baking, grease wax melted, and then another In the above piece of iron version of the pressure on, so the literal level, to be iron version of the cooling, the row is fixed in the iron version of the word, this is the layout. (3) applied ink printing. printing is completed, the iron version back on the fire the burning of fat wax one can pick out the type, and then back into the paper bag, routed wood Gerry, to prepare for re-use.
However, some Europeans have attributed the invention of movable type Gutenberg. Gutenberg is West Germany. He invented the movable type of lead, which is about a matter between AD 1440-1448, compared Tao Bi Sheng invented movable type exactly 400 years later. movable type in human history One of the greatest inventions, is a major contribution to world culture. Like any invention, as is the Bi Sheng invented movable type has its own social needs, material and technical basis of the conditions. China's social progress to the Northern Song period, because economic development, prosperity and cultural prosperity, large numbers need to disseminate information quickly. movable type was to address the issues raised by social needs arising.
of the earliest calendar year in the Northern Song Dynasty and the Qing Block invented the movable type printing technology, can be printed in the history of a technological revolution, unfortunately, has not been popularized. Ming and early introduction of printing in Europe, developed into the latest technology of movable type, the early 19th century, ; export change constantly followed, and gradually entered into the modern level: laser typesetting and printing technology, color offset printing, laser printing technology, and so copying dependents.
Cai Lun papermaking
China is the world's first country invented paper. According to the archaeological found that China has adopted the Western Han Dynasty linen fiber paper. rough texture, and a small number of high cost and difficult to spread.
105 AD, Cai Lun in the Eastern Han capital Luoyang summary of previous experience, improved papermaking to bark, hemp head, rags, old fishing nets and other raw materials for paper making. greatly improve the quality of paper production efficiency, expanding the sources of raw materials of paper, reducing paper costs, the paper opened up the prospect of replacing Bamboo and Silk, as a cultural the spread of creating favorable conditions. Cai Lun invented paper, see on the historical records, your and Jane heavy, not easy people. London is intended to create, with tree skin, head and spacious linen cloth, fishing nets that paper. can be summarized into four steps: first, the separation of raw materials, that is, or cooking with a steep dip method for degumming of raw materials in alkali solution, and dispersed into the fiber; second beating, is to use the method of cutting and pounding pounding cut off the fibers, making fiber broom, and a pulp; third copy made, that water seepage into the pulp slurry, and then use the fishing feeder (bamboo seats) fishing pulp to make paper pulp in the fishing device woven into sheets and on wet paper; the fourth is dry, the drying time for the wet paper or dry, peeled off to become the paper. Han later, although techniques continue to improve and mature, but four steps are basically unchanged, even in modern times, in the Wet paper production, the production process of paper making in ancient China is still not fundamentally different.
papermaking to the early 7th century (late Sui and early Tang dynasty) began the East spread to Korea, Japan; the 8th century westward Ruelabo, and then passed in Baghdad; the 10th century to Damascus, Cairo; 11th century it spread to Morocco; 13th century it spread to India; the 14th century in Italy, the Italian paper mill built in many cities, the spread of European importance of papermaking base and from there spread to Germany, the United Kingdom; 16th century it spread to Russia, the Netherlands; 17th century, reached England; 19th century it spread to Canada. the invention of paper and spread the word carrier costs have been greatly decreased, knowledge of the popularity of the civilian population can be achieved, thus greatly promoting the world's science and technology and economic development.
iridescent (Xiao Yu):
Thank you breeze teacher article ins and outs of text at a glance. the birth of the text to civilization in human wild farewell rational sign of the times, man, the working people in working life, from scratch, from less to more, from the long and gradually try to nurture the convention, the election refining uncovered. It is by no means the product of one moment, that with the development of society and the development of has a long history. Guo that understanding of origin of Chinese characters is no doubt is in line with historical facts. pictographic mode of expressive support the aesthetic character of this culture through the Banpo pottery from the oracle inscriptions carved into the long break the development process, it is also the mother gave birth to the character of this unique calligraphy Art.
breeze Description:
(1) I wrote in an article, word origins can be traced back 7,000 years ago, and found that only dates back to 3000 years ago, Oracle. here's the fault of a 4,000 years, is I have omitted, Xiao Yu carefully fill out this part: that is, before the Oracle has a long Yangshao Neolithic period, the performance of the ancestors carved symbols on the pottery, leaving the text.
(2) carrier in the text about evolution, I also omitted the Shang Dynasty bronze strands of carved stone carving words and characters spring. the art of calligraphy is also omitted (Zhou, seal, Li, Yan, Liu, Song, etc.) of the evolution of process.
under the bodhi tree
Although the origin of words can be created from the production of surplus products found in the new environment, but the impact of the text is extremely important and far-reaching.
text allows one to record and the accumulation of species of the real situation, from generation to generation, thereby promoting the development of intelligence.
not cooked eggs
paper, printing, invented in ancient China, the great ah!
Yuanfentiankong
text is knowledge carrier, the text conveys civilization!
friends home
are right: text generation, and promote the social civilization of mankind,
promote the development of natural science, the media have played any significant role can not be replaced. Progress!
lucky
valuable knowledge!
dream jun and the Indus
text in the process of human information transfer. played a revolutionary role in ......< br> a cut Samuume
breeze teachers knowledgeable, Bowen rich in content, admire, admire!
Sunset
human society is inseparable from the text. social development to the present, with the network, recording more convenient.
Xin Quan blog
breeze teacher, your Notes is wonderful!
Maple Dihua
text laid the foundation for the development for now.

China Sohu users a unified country by the text, the Chinese so that we can unite cultures.
late autumn
Nehru (India's former Prime Minister) said: in the east there is an ancient country, and her every word, is a beautiful epic, a beautiful picture.
Dan Jingxun (Japan) said: I am sure there are characters in the world can be called a real text, we Japanese can read Japanese characters, you can read Chinese characters in English and German, so United States had such an experiment, so that people learning English in Chinese than in English with Roman characters better. So I think if people around the world can use Chinese characters, even if the language barrier, but also to exchange feelings. I want the world People can be so, the more wonderful!
tea estates
back to listen to a book, Mr.,
unlock students worry hundred days.
source of cultural exploration,
quest on the road hard busy.
Lvchuang Dreaming
human development can not be cut off history, the study of ancient text of great significance.
forum can be a hundred. breeze teacher!
pretty clear
the origin of words in the world, are basically derived from hieroglyphs. both ancient Egyptian text or graphics created by the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia graphical text, or our ancestors created Yanhuang hieroglyphics, and its common feature is tracing the shape of things, painting things, to express the image of the written language.
pretty clear
with text, can record the language, the exchange of information. language to distinguish between humans and animals, words the primitive stage of human society and civilization stages separate. text more to break the language in time and space constraints, the language sent to the remote, and expand the communicative function of language.
Whispering few people know, the wind Gone with the Wind dies ...
now, some people put the word we have wrongly hard!
stylus mouth
words to express my feelings.
language, so I appreciate emotions. Let me express inner
text language of precipitation.
words I spit smooth sense of Chinese pride.
water hibiscus
person is smart, invented the word!
JIXIANGRUYI
Yangshao culture period, not only developed its own unique language of symbols,
or a national totem of the early birth!
clear state of mind is a cup of tea garden
friends, it is light, there is very strong carefully taste the flavor!
friends is a persistent breeze, very soft, gently over the face is so kind!
friend is a trace of rain, sweet, nourishing our heart is so nice!
ancient wind the wind fields over the teacher's blog
our schools, the library,
is the Museum, was so wonderful, I wish you more and more exciting!!!
injured dog tail grass
true do not know why you know so much! how long a head?
Qinchuan Mu Di
word mark the history of civilization and progress of a nation.
flying Yu Yang
learned, called the master!
Park
clear state of mind to your blog always gives shock!
Clouds Chasing the Moon
breeze teachers learned, is great!
Delicate Jade (amber Tianshan)
teacher, these articles how much effort you spend?
good collection you have to ah!
Duyi
eloquent an academic setting sun!
Xinyu
breeze knowledgeable teachers, Bowen's knowledge strong.
worthy of the title of the teacher, impressed!!
fox ~ ~ this is as fine breeze
support teacher upstairs .. ..
is indeed a teacher in your blog things really opened my eyes!!!
sunrise and sunset
ancient Chinese inventions, great ah!
breeze teachers knowledgeable, Bowen rich in content, admire, admire!
Tianjie network literature
Chinese culture springs from a long!
love the cut really spent a lot of hard work
!
roses Bowen
long to see your knowledge and learn from the teacher breeze !
chat
numerous, ancient civilization, a clean sweep!
Lonely Yehe
reading, the benefit Eph light!
Rose Garden
breeze teacher is indeed a teacher ..
your blog where things really opened my eyes!!!
breeze teachers learned, that is amazing!
sun stainless
wow, Kande Yan have been spent, there are characteristics Oh!
old Army
text generated by the need for the development needs.
written record of history, spread of civilization, to bridge!

winter warm sun energy for your sighs, for your knowledgeable amazing!
you really worthy of the title of the teacher!
Just go to your home, there are always endless knowledge of science!
Beautiful Mind, a new atmosphere
New Year Bo, Shu Wen Shu comfortable feeling strings.
text to begin studying the origin, and learn new things offered breeze.
mood cabin _ flake
five thousand years of Chinese history, there are five thousand words, right?
really study the matter, or the text is better now with!
Huayu fragrance
your blog, make an impact!
lituositui's blog
original read a book on Chinese characters,
said originated in earlier, I do not know, right!
saw the origin of Chinese characters, was quite interesting!
breeze replies:
landlord is right, the text on the pottery from the less we have 7000 years ago,
With the deepening of Archaeology, the new discovery of ancient pottery will continue,
history of the text should be moved up to 9000 years ago said no problem!!!
simply is not Xingfu
points clear is that this year, that year, we are slowly changing.
is always blue sky, white smoke, Hammer said, are very far away.
your eyes, I can see; oath is less than distance and time.
wings, is to fly; see the faith, so we must recover.
2007, Chengdu, see, see Osaka, Guangzhou, see, see Hong Kong, Nanjing, see? ??
hey hey hey! blog, see every day!!
snowy night Star
text is an important symbol of human civilization is an important carrier of human civilization,
to the present, the most popular Chinese characters long , the expression of ideology is the most accurate,
This is really think we should be proud and Johnson cited proud!
Arctic
text is a symbol of civilization!
calm
text, is One of the greatest inventions of mankind!
small streams
word mark the history of civilization and progress of a nation!
my life
text is a symbol of human civilization, and when can not leave!
thoughts with the wind
long knowledge and long experience.
Purple Star
text, since ancient times can not do without it,
deeply buried in the mind into the wealth of our knowledge!
welcome to open
cold alone write good! there still tip of the iceberg!
天凉好个秋
knowledge of your admiration in.
concentrated on research, indulging in creation.
cheers for your dedication!!
hand sand
Weather: You will encounter rain money. Fortunately the wind.
friendship fog. Love Lucy. Health clouds. successfully cream.
happy Ray. Safety hail. fun flash!!!
thousandth
master is a master. we really extensive and profound Chinese culture, ah!
brilliant
Zhuo who see wisdom!!! my poor The teacher is the one your little sea spray!
sometimes thrown up a layer of waves!!! hope that common for your wonderful!!!
hope you add me as friend! ! Although I'm just a little spray!!!
dream child of the house
breeze teacher blog is quite distinctive, rich in content.
read your stuff, and benefit.
awake Dream
ancient China is a culture, but now some people like to write learn new knowledge.
Bo wish you 07 or so sunny, so that civilization to flourish!
New Year message
valley orchids
Bo do innovative and unique . benefit!
color tears
send you a garden, tired and lonely when you walk into,
breeze to see the moon, smooth writing, intellectual garden planted with trees,
stream is forgotten worry about spring, is itself open flowers, take the Happy bridge.
wish you happy every day! such as music,
Cantabile let my greetings, such as music, happy day!
happy carrying 2007 Swallow Swallow
snow,
teacher 2007 to bring blessings,
hope all your wishes come true,
can pay all cash,
all expectations in front of me!
sunrise and sunset
bosom friend is that beautiful.
friendship accompany greetings between heart.
injured dog tail grass
Bo better and better! increasingly popular!
Night is young and good wishes
Xu wish you a Happy New Year again and again < br> Biography wish you a wonderful feeling all year round
to send a greeting Wish you smile gently sweet!

cherish romantic fate during the rainy season, the last good save,
Remove all the unpleasant, to stay in the heart of a care and miss,
really wish my friend, the new year better!
dream
rain a drop of water represents a blessing if I send you a East China Sea;
If each star represents a happiness, I give you a galaxy;
If a tree on behalf of a miss, I will give you a forest.
Chunxiao
luck chasing your Xinglin ! good thing to follow you!
money close to you! elegant helped You!
calamity dodging you! bad people around you are!
love and remembered you! hanging from your family!
Friends thinking about you! God bless you!
walk swallow
released the first ray of sunshine glow, I give to you our best wishes;
put away the last touch of bright red sunset, I give to you my sincere greetings;
in the New Year approaching, send sincere wishes: Happy New Year!
潇洒走一回
hard to write good wishes and blessings of soul to write.
farewell to 2006, celebrate the coming of 2007 years.
Loving
Good luck in your new year:
cause legitimate afternoon, the body as strong as the tiger,
money numerous, do not work hard,
laid-back monkey , romantic like music,
happiness belong to you!
piano without strings
Prime mm means that your New Year's troubles last year, all to be finished;
mm means that your New Year wishes all to be successful this year ;
mm means New Year's Day all the blessings you receive will be fully realized.
mind an enduring friendship with the wind
, blessings, I miss you, warm greetings. < br> No matter how far away from us, care for your heart never changes.
I use all the joy, pray for you, wish you peace in the new year, happy!
Qiushuiyiren 28
open the heart of the sunroof, let the wind of spring into your house;
make New Year's Xuefei into your house; let me New Year's blessing,
by this phrase, floated into your heart!
Xishan Hao wish you
month in the new year,
family and live in harmony, happy year,
happy life, I, in peace,
every day spirit of the times, festive triumphantly month, year after year making plenty of money!
Yang are lazy
new year wishes to friends,
happy, happy,
perfectly healthy, Shun Shun Dangdang ~ ~ ~
Yuanfentiankong
a green leaf, full of its roots in the friendship;
a message, concentrated my best wishes to you.
is a wonderful ...